Hi Sigfús
I'm not sure I understand what you want to do, or at least when you want to do it.
We are talking about a front-end form, yes?
And a user would use a parent-post selector in the form to choose a parent post, and then you want to perform some calculations based upon fields that are retrieved from the chosen parent post?
This is problematic, if that's the case.
We need to distinguish what is available or generated on the server and what is available in the browser.
You mention using a shortcode to perform calculations, but a shortcode runs (or more precisely is replaced by what is returned by the PHP function that defines the shortcode) when the page is being constructed on the server. Once the page is shipped to the browser, such code has happened, and you can't trigger a shortcode to run later.
Once the form is loaded in the browser, you have JavaScript (or jQuery) available.
So if someone made a selection of a parent field, the selected option would contain the parent post id (that's what you were asking about), and it could be retrieved in JavaScript.
But then what?
You are in the browser, not on the server, so you cannot run PHP to get some field values from that parent post to be used in calculations.
You can, of course, but that requires making an ajax request to the server to run some custom PHP you have written that will return the field values you require so that the JavaScript code can work with them. (You could work with the REST API instead of using ajax, but the principles are the same.) In either case, it would mean custom development, and if it is not something you are able to do yourself you would need a developer.
If you don't have too many parent posts to choose from, then there is another alternative which may be a little bit simpler, although it still requires custom coding both in JavaScript and PHP.
That is, you can use the WordPress function wp_localize_script to pass some data assembled on the server in PHP to the browser, embedded in the page, so that it is available to JavaScript in the browser. (Read more here: hidden link)
If you had hundreds of parent posts it's unlikely you would want to bundle all of that data in the page markup, but if you only had a handful of posts then it would make sense, and is likely easier than using ajax or the REST API.